Venom, being an adaptive trait, has propelled the expansion of snake lineages across diverse habitats, such as the biogeographically distinct Indian landscapes. Natural selection optimises the potency, composition and lineage-specificity of the snake venom arsenal for effective prey capture or predator deterrence. Therefore, venoms of several closely related snake species have been documented to exhibit tremendous spatial venom variation owing to their distinct evolutionary ecology. However, research on venoms in India has predominantly focused on assessing the compositional variation in certain snake species from restricted locales. These studies have also evaluated the venom variation only from a biochemical perspective without considering the ecological and evolutionary significance of such compositional differences. Hence, several questions pertaining to the evolutionary ecology of Indian snake venoms remain unanswered.

Naja naja and Daboia russelii are two medically important snake species that are widely distributed across distinct bioclimatic regions of India, including arid deserts, fertile plains, rainforests and hot-humid coasts. In addition to their clinical relevance in the snakebite scenario, these two species are fascinating model systems to understand the relationship between evolutionary ecology and venom variation. This doctoral thesis was designed to decipher the relationship between various ecological and environmental determinants and the variability in N. naja and D. russelii venoms. For this, venoms of wild-caught snakes from the major biogeographic zones across the country were sampled. A multi-faceted approach involving proteomics, biochemical analysis, pharmacological assessment and toxicity studies was employed to characterise the extent of variability. These studies revealed remarkable intraspecific variation across populations of these two species. The venoms varied significantly in terms of their composition, functional profiles and toxic potencies.

Further, the contribution of various abiotic, biotic and life history factors in dictating this variation was evaluated. A theoretical prediction model was developed to explain the variation observed in the enzymatic activities of D. russelii venom due to the combined effect of bioclimatic variables in a region. The feeding ecology is amongst the major biotic factors that drive venom evolution. Therefore, the prey-specificity of N. naja and D. russelii venoms was examined as a proxy to understand the relationship between compositional variation and diet. The venom specificity was determined through in vitro binding and in vivo lethality experiments against distinct prey organisms.

In addition to interpopulation variation, venoms were documented to vary between individuals within the same population. Therefore, the extent of intersexual and ontogenetic venom variation within a population was characterised by housing multiple clutches of these venomous snakes under captivity. The differences and similarities in the venom composition, potency and specificity across sexes and ontogenetic stages of N. naja and D. russelii individuals were recorded. While intersexual variation was not observed in either of the species, marked differences were observed between the venoms of young and adult D. russelii snakes. However, adult and juvenile stages of N. naja were found to produce functionally similar venoms. These results shed light on the influence of distinct ecologies on temporal venom variation across the developmental stages of a species.

Finally, the repercussions of venom variation at various levels on snakebite treatment in India were investigated by performing WHO-recommended preclinical studies. These studies highlighted the shortcomings of the currently employed conventional antivenom therapy in mitigating snakebites across the country. Overall, these studies also provided valuable insights for the development of advanced snakebite therapeutics that have the potential to save the lives, limbs, and livelihood of India’s thousands of annual snakebite victims.

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In this talk, I will give a broad-brush overview of three areas in the field of animal coloration in which I think we have much to learn and discover – and the current efforts of my group to tackle a small part of them. The first area is the function and perception of iridescent and shiny colours that change appearance as signallers or receivers move. The second area is the intersection between light and heat – optical properties beyond the limits of human and animal vision and their consequences for thermal control. The third area is new ways to produce colour through pigment-structure interactions. These areas hold great promise for both fundamental biological understanding and bioinspired applications.